Rethinking the public sector: Idiosyncrasies of biotechnology commercialization as motors of national R&D reform in Germany and Japan

Recent policies to promote biotechnology are motors of broader R&D reform in Germany and Japan. The idiosyncrasies of biotechnology commercialization could not be readily accommodated by these countries' traditional technology policies, thus prompting reforms in institutions governing the commercialization of basic scientific research. These reforms provide a novel perspective on the nature of innovation in biotechnology; while previous research has underlined factors such as the national science base, industry-university links, entrepreneurship and venture capital, the German and Japanese cases highlight the importance of other mediating variables such as the level of public governance within national research institutions, the autonomy of the university/research sector, and the historical role of the public sector generally.